Something about gardening helping to overcome malnutrition and hunger in sub saharan africa

Here is the shorter, simpler version of my lit review for SIT... the conclusion is kind of whack since I didn't really know how to talk about my personal learning outcomes while still sounding professional, and keep in mind that the assignment was called a literature review, but wasn't really one at all. And it is background research for an ISP project. mmkay then.

The numbers correspond to footnotes that didn't paste into here, unfortunately.


Introduction:
The United Nations recently revealed that the number of hungry people in the world has climbed from roughly 850 million to about 925 million during the last year of the world food crisis. With almost one billion of the world's population living in an extreme state of food insecurity, the international community is tenaciously seeking solutions. For the past half-century, green revolution style attempts to boost agricultural production have been the mainstream answer to the hunger problem; however, an expansive body of literature has simultaneously developed to reveal the extreme drawbacks of this method. At the same time, a body of literature and science has emerged describing an alternative practice, small scale sustainable agriculture in all of its forms. This paper will address what will loosely be termed home gardening, because is accessible to a wide range of people, specifically the most vulnerable. Despite the wealth of literature and study on the subject, the available information remains disconnected and the terminology varied, with few solid links between ecology, culture, and food security. This constitutes a major problem for proponents of home gardens, who often find themselves overshadowed by the consolidated money interests supporting Green Revolution technologies.
This literature review will offer background information to explain the relevance of this topic to the international community as well as national and local bodies. It will proceed to argue, based on the existing literature, that home gardening offers a viable and culturally appropriate strategy for achieving food security and adequate nutrition on the grassroots level, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, it is important to also recognize the drawbacks of the existing bodies of literature, as well as the challenges for home garden programs to develop a best practice. The utility of home gardens for addressing the needs of the hungry, particularly women and children, can only be fully realized by overcoming these obstacles. This overview of a variety of agricultural methods in multiple cultural settings will inform the direction of an independent study project, which will take the focus deeper into a particular community and program development.

The Food Crisis and Hunger in Africa:
Global discourse suggests that the world food crisis is characterized by a dramatic increase in the prices of food, particularly staple foods such as maize, wheat, rice, dairy, and vegetable oils. The crisis is believed to be caused by a “perfect storm” of factors, namely changing populations, the bio-fuel industry, financial speculation, climate change, production shortages, and long term agricultural trade and domestic policies1. An international agreement on the causes of the crisis is mainstream; representatives from think tanks like the South Center, agricultural trade and policy advisors, speakers from the World Food Program and the UN High Commission for Human Rights, as well as countless academics and government officials, recognize that the crisis is a product of human decisions.
Food shortages and famines are notorious for affecting the continent of Africa with a disproportionate force, and it is important to note that sub-Saharan Africa has been bypassed by most of the global gains made in food security over the last century2. As a vestige of colonization, small land owners have often been marginalized to make room for the large scale production of staples, which in turn has created an imbalance between food and cash crops3. Africa is also home to most of the world's Least Developed Countries (LDC's) and is benefiting the least from both economic liberalism and modern aid strategies, suggesting a need for innovative solutions to the hunger problem.
Freedom from hunger and malnutrition as a human right has been on the border of international discussion for generations, and is recognized by some global agreements such as the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights as well as the Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger and Malnutrition. However, intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations High Commission for Human Rights have a difficult time creating a consensus on food as a human right, due in part, reported a representative, to countries' reluctance to make food security more inclusive, with obligations, accountability, and international enforcement methods.4 This lack of consensus on a rights-based obligation to address the food crisis has contributed to the haphazard national and international responses to the food crisis.
Relying on international agreements or even national plans to take immediate and effective action to secure food security for those in need is problematic. Countries have been trying a variety of strategies, from tinkering with subsidies to restricting exports while the international community has attempted to find a solution5. While the UN International Fund for Agricultural Development called on member states to “urgently direct their policy attention and their investments towards small-holder agriculture and rural livelihoods,” an idea echoed by the World Bank Report 2008, the chance of genuine structural changes in the food system to assist small holder livelihoods is minimal.
The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) shows a complex and potentially self-defeating mix of perspectives and ideas6. The 2004 meeting supported boosting staple crop production by following the Asian method, which is heavily chemical, petrol and irrigation dependent as well as out of the price range of most African farmers. Kwesi Atta-Krah explained in expert detail the importance of biodiversity to sustainable systems, and then proceeded to promote GMO monocrops. Norman Borlaug, chief spokesman for the Green Revolution and a specialist at the 2004 conference, explained that Africans shouldn't allow themselves to be confused by discussions about the environment and sustainability, but should instead push forward production maximization. The World Bank's policy is just as scattered; one page of the 2008 report urges sub-Saharan African countries to help farmers increase production because agriculture “has special powers for reducing poverty,” yet a few pages later the report stresses the importance of moving African farmers off their land and into cities7.
The food crisis has been linked strongly and credibly to international agricultural trade policies and the global food system. The food-scape of today is distinguished by consolidation; the South Center reports that not only is global food production incredibly concentrated into the hands of roughly six corporations, but these companies (Nestle, Cargill, Archer Daniels, etc) have taken in huge profits in response to the global price increases, while the actual producers have seen little to no gain8. Other sources reveal that less than 5% of landowners control roughly 80% of the world's farmland9. Development analysist Duncan Green explains that current trends suggest that corporate consolidation is only likely to grow in extent, and OXFAM agrees by stating that, “any agreement based on what is currently on the table at the WTO is likely to undermine, rather than strengthen, developing country agricultural systems and is unlikely to solve the current crisis”1011. Due to the structural difficulties facing the global food system and uncertainty over if, when, how, and why changes should or should not be made, it is critically important to explore food security measures that do not rely on national or international political or economic bodies. Grassroots solutions may be the best, if not the only, feasible option for achieving food security.

Why Promote Home Gardening Techniques:
Home gardens and the techniques associated with them are inexpensive, productive, and practical for land owners, renters, and even the landless. Generations of pressure from governments and colonizing powers have promoted cash crop mono-cultures throughout the developing world, which has led to desertification and lower soil productivity in much of Africa12. The pressure to grow for export has also contributed to a decline in traditional farming practices, including the cultivation of supplementary indigenous crops. Today, in many regions of Africa traditional plants are only harvested in the wild, often in times of famine13. Dominant agricultural discourse overlooks the “hidden harvest” of the wild bounty remaining in developing countries and their traditional use, focusing instead on capital intensive technologies. The U.S. Office of Technology Assessments reports that to be successful, the agricultural technology promoted in sub-Saharan Africa must instead be small scale, affordable, low risk, locally produced, adapted to local labor, and consistent with traditional agriculture14. Home gardening and associated practices are able to sustainably fulfill these requirements as well as increase food security.
Home gardening is used as an overarching term for planting near the home primarily for consumption. This overview discusses traditional garden plots, fallow plots, alley gardening, urban agriculture, and guerrilla gardening as a collection of strategies for achieving food security within a variety of cultural contexts. Depending on the society, gardening techniques can be easily adapted to suit traditional growing practices. In addition to addressing hunger and malnutrition, small scale gardening has the potential to increase production, help boost people out of economic poverty, and rehabilitate the environment.

Health and Nutrition
Traditionally, a vast majority of sub-Saharan African cultures, particularly those in the arid and tropical regions, relied on gathering and occasionally planting wild plants as a way to supplement their diets, gather medicine, and ward off hunger in times of famine. In the Sahel, over 800 different edible wild species have been recorded, which historically contributed to the diets of local people15. Over time, however, colonization, cash cropping, deforestation, the use of chemical sprays, and other modern methods have decreased the wild food available, and other contributors such as food aid have begun to alter gathering patterns. This has replaced highly nutritious local food sources with staples, contributing to malnutrition even in the absence of hunger. Studies indicate that local food sources, specifically those planted and gathered from small size African gardens, can provide 15-30% of recommended daily amounts of calories and proteins, and almost all required vitamin A, vitamin C, B-complex, iron, lysine, calcium, fat, iodine, as well as medicinal and traditional herbs16. A Zimbabwe study confirms that families living in close proximity to forests, gardens, and other diverse food sources are significantly healthier than those who are not17.
One of the greatest benefits of planting local semi-cultivars is that the natural plants work together as a system. Wild plants, annuals or perennials, naturally grow together in a poly-culture where they complement each others growing seasons, nutrients, and even have the ability to defend each other from the elements and pests18. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reports that indigenous vegetables are healthy and relatively easy to grow in most of Africa; however, Western agents often promote the cultivation of plants that are exotic to the continent, leaving livelihoods susceptible to droughts and pests. Indigenous foods also have the benefit of being suited to the cultures' traditional tastes and practices, making them highly culturally appropriate.
Whether planting in a home garden, on fallow land, eroded gullies, or roadsides, securing a diverse food supply is critical especially in times of famine or crop failure. Because natural plant systems complement each other's growing seasons, there are several healthy, popular plants like the locust bean in West Africa that grow during the traditional hungry season19. Leafy green vegetables and other indigenous herbs and plants can grow within weeks and perennial mixed gardens are capable of producing drought and pest resistant produce year round for families. The FAO defines food security as existing when “all people at all times have physical social and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”20. By having control over a continuous, stable, and sustainable food source that requires little labor or monetary input, people are brought closer to food security.

Production
The Western Sahel is one of the few places in the world that has actually seen a decrease in production over the last half century, and the rest of Africa has struggled to keep production stable on soil that is suffering desertification due to overuse21. Mixed garden agriculture, by returning nutrients like nitrogen to the soil and allowing a variety of plants to complement each other, has been shown to increase the productivity of the individual crops22. Studies also indicate that over time, polycultures show dramatic production rates relative to monoculture fields, in addition to the fact that mixed gardens can grow where staple crops generally cannot23. In the Western Sahel, wild grain varieties have also been shown to have dramatically higher production rates than their domestic counterparts, as well as higher nutrition even when they growing completely independent of human care24. In addition, the World Bank Report 2008 reports that small scale farmers “often remain the most efficient producers,” which OXFAM recognizes with their small holder seed fairs.25 At these seed fairs, OXFAM sells local seed varieties for a low cost to encourage an increase in local and productive crops26.

Poverty Alleviation
On average, people living in LDC's spend between 50-80% of their incomes on food, even those who live and work on farmland. By producing nutritious supplemental vegetables, nuts, tubers, fruit, and greens, a family has the ability to reduce their household food expenditures, and even potentially sell some food for revenue. A pilot garden program in Senegal resulted in families earning the equivalent of 20% of what the family determined a good salary from the sale of their extra produce27. One key benefit to growing local crops is that seeds are often free and unpatented, and a farmer is able to gather them from the wild or their own harvest to save money. Once relative food security is secured and with the assistance of additional income, people are more likely to take risks, make investments, and move from subsistence agriculture to business28. The protection offered by perennial gardens also decreases people's reliance on traders and loans during food shortages, helping stave off debt. Smallholders are more likely to reinvest their wealth in the local community than large farms, who tend to spend and save profits abroad, and the local varieties are generally immune to international fluctuations such as currency rates, trade policies, fuel prices, etc2930. Together, these factors help people to build stronger livelihoods as well as stronger communities.

Environmental Sustainability
Arid and tropical sub-Saharan Africa is primarily characterized by low activity, clay or sandy soils which are highly vulnerable to erosion, have low nutrient exchange capabilities, and have low water retention capabilities31. To grow under these conditions, farmers traditionally practiced a variety of strategies similar to bush-fallow, where crops are grown for a certain period of time and then the land is left to rehabilitate. Today, however, these systems are failing; due to population increases and poverty, residues from cash crops are collected and sold rather than left to regenerate the soil, and new crops are planted much sooner32. Little legal framework exists to prevent desertification or preserve bio-diversity, leaving the burden of land preservation upon the pastoralists, farmers, and forest dwellers who rely on it for food. By planting natural vegetation, local people can protect the soil around their communities or in fields from high temperatures, wind erosion, and sandblasting, as well as return nitrogen to the soil with leguminous browse. By mixing animal and crop production, they are able to encourage grazing that returns even more SOM (soil organic matter), preserving a diverse natural system that is essential to the long term sustainability of agriculture33.

Rural Settings:
Presently, roughly ¾ of the world's poor lives in rural settings, 2.7 billion of whom live on less than two dollars a day, and most of whom depend on agriculture for their livelihoods34. Often the poorest and most vulnerable of these people have little energy and live in communities on degenerated land, lacking fuel and water, and often lacking healthy adult males who leave to find wage work35. As net food buyers they are especially susceptible to changes in world food prices, often only a breath away from asset disposal and starvation. There are several different forms of low cost, low labor, small scale gardening that could help individuals in this situation while staying in tuned with cultural norms. It is critical to recognize that sub-Saharan Africa is made up of about as many farming and food systems as ethno-linguistic groups; this overview will discuss a few methods that can carry over a multitude of general practices, however for any project design it would be of the greatest importance to study the practices suited to a specific culture, and even a specific community.
Many African communities can be characterized by a mix of pastoralism and crop production, appearing as bush-fallow systems (also known as swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation). This form of agriculture is seen all over the world. Traditionally only lightly planted, fallows offer an opportunity for families and communities to build high producing, low input intensive polycultures of trees and vegetables, rehabilitating the land while feeding themselves. In this situation it is especially important to carefully select the plant mixes based on ecological research to determine an appropriate mix to give back rather than take from the land, and to grow with the minimum amount of water. Another appropriate small scale technique is the traditional “kraal” garden, which combines crop cultivation with livestock. These plots take advantage of the organic material and seeds left by livestock in kraals where they are kept at night; when they are no longer used for animals, these kraals are planted and turned into gardens.
Alley farming is another strategic form of small scale agriculture that can be adapted to overcome the constraints where home gardens are not practical. Alley farming is an agroforestry system where food crops are grown in shaded alleys between leguminous hedgerows or trees and can be grown on either fallow land or integrated with cash crops36. In practice this strategy builds upon traditional farming systems, making it generally culturally acceptable. Leaves and prunnings from the trees are used to create green manure while the trees fix nitrogen in the soil, the rooting system minimizes soil erosion, and the trees provide both animal fodder and firewood.
Food Gardens Unlimited (FGU), a South African NGO, demonstrates the benefits associated with small garden plots close to the home site. This project assists particularly the most marginalized people in the region of South Africa by providing an ideal mix of low cost seeds and basic training to establish productive garden plots of a practical size. The plant beds they encourage are only a few square meters and are created using biodegradable household rubbish for the lower layer, sub and top soil from the local area, and completed with a scattering dry plant waste over the top. Four of these small gardens can reportedly provide enough supplementary food for a family year round37. FGU stresses companion planting, which has built in insect control, and the program is coupled with education about crop rotation and simple natural methods of agricultural disease prevention. Their program has proven successful in a blend of hostile squatter cities, arid isolated impoverished villages, new villages with no infrastructure, and other challenging locations. One of the greater successes of the project is its ability to connect with existing structures within the community and use successful local multipliers38.

Urban Settings:
While obtaining food security in rural regions is of critical importance for eradicating poverty, it is equally important to address small scale gardening as a tool for urban settings. The UN reports that 2008 is the first year in history when more than half of the world's population live in urban settings and most of these urbanites rely on food supplied and transported from their rural counterparts39. In African cities, urban and peri-urban agriculture can help ease the urban food demand and promote greater sanitation through the compost of biodegradable refuse40. Highly perishable foods such as vegetables, fruit, small livestock, fish, and poultry are incredibly expensive to transport from farm to city; urban and peri-urban production has the ability to reduce the cost for urban dwellers. As of 1999, over 800 million people practiced urban agriculture throughout the world, and sub-Saharan African cities generally have large inner and outer zones well suited to small scale production41. A locally produced supply could in large part reduce the cost burden for African urban dwellers, who can spend up to 75% of their incomes on food alone42.
Urban agriculture is highly adaptable, and food can be grown on abandoned property, underdeveloped private or public space, land unsuited for building, roadsides, boxes, or in more formal gardens43. While community or large scale gardens often require secure property rights for at least one holder, small and innovative forms of agriculture are possible even in the absence of property rights. Leafy greens and other indigenous plants are able to grow quickly and through forms of shifting cultivation can circumscribe the need for secure land rights. While production within or nearby cities can be costly (fertilizers, etc), research into both traditional and innovative organic methods provides people with simple, low cost, natural strategies for maintaining soil productivity and pest control. The problem of urban refuse could be largely aided by grassroots systems that transform urban waste into production materials. For example, a case study in Cotonou found that urban farmers often used dredge, cottonseed remains, composted garbage, and chicken manure to maintain their soils44.
Urban agriculture techniques, particularly guerrilla gardening and community gardens, also have the possibility to feed the landless. A representative from the UNHCR said that roughly 1/5 of the world's hungry are in fact landless45. Renters may be able to grow small garden plots on their rented land, but others have to rely completely on purchased food. By growing crops either in coordination with the local community or simply on abandoned, underused, or eroded land, the landless are able to supplement their diet nutritiously while diminishing their food bill. For landless or nomadic people living in rural settings, reseeding forage areas may be critical to maintaining a continuous supply of wild foods.

Gender Perspective:
Arguably, a socially just system should ensure that resources and power are distributed equitably so that the basic needs of all are met and their rights assured, especially in regards to control of resources and participation46. Unfortunately the global food system leaves the poor, specifically women and children, at a clear disadvantage. Women and children are nutritionally the most vulnerable group in developing countries, particularly women and girl children who are often the last to be fed47. Recent decreases in the supply of wild foods, which are usually gathered, eaten, and marketed by women and children, in combination with skyrocketing commercial food prices, have hit women the hardest48. Garden projects are especially helpful to women, who constitute the majority of small holder farmers49. Local plants grown near the home have the double benefit of requiring little manual labor as well as offering a flexible harvest period; a mother or child can pick what is needed for the day rather than harvesting the entire supply all at once50. One of the greatest challenges facing garden projects is to overcome a gender bias in order to target these women. Often, surveys only examine male activities, and when they find that women aren't present they assume that women are not taking part in food production, while in fact the opposite is usually true. Low input small scale solutions are especially effective for increasing the access of women and their children to food and nutrition.

Case Study: The Ilesha Project
This project was chosen as a case study because it is one of the first successful garden programs that pays special attention to being cultural appropriate. While it was institutionally funded, the program was designed and implemented by a small non-governmental group. The program illustrates several of the most important successes as well as challenges that garden programs still face.
The Ilesha Project, initiated in the 1960's, illustrates the challenges and successes of harm garden projects within small communities. The Ilesha Project was one of many Applied Nutrition Projects funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) during the 1960's and 1970's, which aimed to improve nutrition by increasing the production and consumption of supplementary foods such as legumes, leafy vegetables, and fruits. The project proved to be innovative for the time, introducing a traditional Indonesian style of mixed garden that is today regarded of one of the most productive and sustainable forms of agriculture. It also supported local and traditional horticultural research to increase production and solve pest problems naturally, with minimum external inputs, while supplying complimentary nutrition information. Most importantly, their methods proved very acceptable to the local Yoruba speakers.
The project site, the Ilesha region in West Nigeria, is characterized by high temperatures, mixed rainy and dry periods, and tropical vegetation. Because the region focused heavily on the production of cash crops, space for food crops was extremely limited, exasperating hunger amongst the population. Childhood mortality due to malnutrition was a critical problem for the local people, who were specifically deficient in protein, riboflavin, iron, and folic acid.
One of the program's greater strength was the quality of research that went into developing the program parameters. With local extensionists or multipliers, the program staff determined what foods were eaten, by whom, when, specific dietary deficiencies, and popular local foods that could address those needs. Substantial effort went into the study of the most culturally appropriate foods, which were primarily local varieties. Local crops, unlike their exotic counterpart, not only suited the bitter-tastes of the locals better, but were able to grow more easily and produce more seeds for the next planting.
Prior to the project's implementation, local vegetables were gathered from fallow or abandoned land, roadsides, or the bush By offering the same varieties within the home garden, a system of continuous project was established close to the home. Because most of the preferred local crops were annuals, special care went into creating complimentary blends of plants to provide year round food, adequate rain and sun protection, as well as suitable natural blends to prevent pest problems. Within four years, 638 home gardens had been established in ten pilot villages operated by a virtually even distribution of men, women, and children.
The program began with a large, institutionalized research and demonstration garden in a centralized location, and offered a basic design that was multi-layered and fenced. While at first these seemed to be important strategies for replication and goat-defense, these two factors specifically were not suited to the local people. Decentralized gardens supported by locals of average means proved to be the most self replicating, and the expensive fences were quickly abandoned in favor of thorny hedges.
The Ilesha project faced many of the constrains common to garden projects in Africa, such as the dry season, manure and water availability, and cultural restrictions that required creative and innovative solutions from the local people and project staff. The concept of household space proved to be the greatest cultural constraint to the project. Villagers traditionally kept vegetation away from the home space to minimize snake bites and pests. However, when villagers saw their neighbors buying less and less food from markets and procuring more from their own gardens, they generally found the benefits to outweigh the harms51. The necessity for this adaptation could have possibly been avoided if the program had focused on a different form of gardening that was not located so close to the home site, but rather within the alleys of cash crops or on nearby fallow land.

Project Design and Cultural Constraints:
Constraints
Due in part to the disconnect between home gardening resources in literature, garden projects are often plagued by a variety of problems, primarily stemming from inaccurate assessments of the host culture and resources. Inaccurate surveys often miscalculate the needs and abilities of the people they survey, ignoring forms of labor or agriculture that are unfamiliar to the project staff, or assuming an abundance of strong, healthy labor. They also have difficulties accurately determining land rights; for example, in some cultural settings land rights are determined by whether or not the land is plowed, and gardeners only need to plow every four or five years rather than multiple times per year. The availability of basic inputs such as water is often misjudged, and some programs specifically target one gender at the expense of the other. Often NGO's offer agricultural methods requiring iron tools, bar fences, wells, and other resources that are costly as well as difficult for locals to repair, obtain, or replicate. Another common constraint seen throughout the literature was the trend of Western donors to bring Western crops, which generally do not suit local tastes, require too much water, and actually have lower nutritional density when compared to the relatively tropical local plants52.
Distinct cultural constraints also exist, regarding land use as well as diet. The concept of home space varies from culture to culture, and within some groups growing or establishing fences or hedges near the home disturbs the concept of the home space and community. It is also important to note that while historically wild grains, legumes, vegetables, tubers, and nuts were common supplements to the sub-Saharan diet, today many of these wild plants have been effectively marginalized. As people increasingly work for wages and buy commercial food, they are moved out of the sphere of the wild harvest, often losing the ability to recognize and appreciate the benefit of wild plants. Nutritious leafy green vegetables or high fat content nuts in some cultures are now considered nothing more than snack food for children or forage for the poor, thus carrying a cultural stigma that can only be combated through education53.

Successes
These limitations do not apply to all home garden programs; hundreds have been able to invest in quality research and evaluations in order to accurately determine a population's needs and capabilities. For every mistake listed above, another program has found a solution. Making connections with local institutions, particularly in the health field, is an important strategy for entering the community and an excellent tool for distributing nutrition knowledge. Program staff who are from the community, highly trained, and of an average social class prove to be the most effective multipliers, triggering higher participation rates despite cultural reservations. Local connections are integral for the project design and implementation, as is encouraging locals to find solutions and innovations on their own. Successful projects also set up sustainable systems for distributing seeds, knowledge, and other forms of assistance54.
These projects are most often organized by NGO's, but receive a surprising amount of funding from the United Nations and individual governments. The FAO has shown interest in the role of minor crops in a variety of programs, from nutrition to forestry to food security. During the UN “Freedom from Hunger Campaign” during the 50's, 60's, and 70's, the FAO and UNICEF sponsored hundreds of Applied Nutrition Programs that either focused on gardening or promoted it as a part of a larger strategy55. The governments of India, Ghana, Cuba, Sri Lanka, Colombia, Chile, the Philippines, and a variety of other nations have made home gardening a national priority through inter-ministerial units.

Conclusion:
Overall, the available literature on home gardening proved to be extensive, yet disconnected. Sources focused primarily on either the ecology and sustainability of small scale agriculture or the socioeconomic benefits, but few strong links were established between the natural and social sciences. Home gardening programs have been important tools for promoting health and development over the past half century, yet have remained over-shadowed by mainstream discourses in modern, technology intensive agriculture. Knowledge and information on the home gardening projects have been relatively marginalized within literature of the dominant discourse, potentially preventing a full realization of the benefits of gardening programs. Without performing significant research, one might not be aware that these projects exist, much less that hundreds have been pursued around the world as part of UN Development strategy.
The overview presented in this paper provides a useful framework for the further investigation and program design of a gardening project within a specific cultural and climactic context. Without this study, it would be difficult to determine potential avenues for an Independent Study Project because the information lacks accessibility. The primary learning outcome of this paper was to discover that the uncertain and unsupported idea of the author was in fact relatively common in development programs, although not necessarily a popularized topic. By reviewing the flaws and successes of a variety of different programs in multiple settings, one is able to refine and specify a future project in regards to the population it may serve, the methods available, and identify potential failures or difficulties. These projects operate under the umbrella of pro-poor development theory and food as a human right. Circumventing slow and conflicted governmental or intergovernmental policies, gardening projects provide near immediate results for the world's most needy in a way that is sustainable and relies primarily on the resources at hand.


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